علوم قرآن و حدیث

مدخل Al-Kuran دائرة المعارف اسلام (زبان انگلیسی)

AL-KUR'AN (A.), the Muslim scripture, containing the revelations recited by Muhammad and preserved in a fixed, written form

OUTLINE OF THE ARTICLE

Etymology and synonyms

a. Derivation and Kur'anic usage b. Synonyms in the Kur'an 2. Muhammad and the Kur'an 3. History of the Kur'an after 632
a. The collection" of the Kur'ân
b. Variant readings and Companion codices c. Establishment of the canonical text and readings

Structure
a. The suras and their names
b. The verses
c. The basmala
d. The mysterious letters

Chronology of the text

a. Historical references in the Kur'an

b. Traditional Muslim dating

c. Modern Western dating

Language and style

a. Language of the Kur'an

b. Foreign vocabulary

c. Rhymes and refrains

d. Schematic form and multiple accounts 7. Literary forms and major themes

a. Oaths and related forms

b. Sign-passages

c. Say-passages

d. Narratives

e. Regulations

f. Liturgical forms

Others

8. The Kur'an in Muslim life and thought

Bibliography to Sections 1-8

9. Translation of the Kur'an

a. The orthodox doctrine

b. Translations into specific languages

1. ETYMOLOGY AND SYNONYMS

a. Derivation and Kur'anic usage. The earliest attested usage of the term kur'an is in the Kur'an itself, where it occurs about 70 times with a variety of meanings. Most Western scholars have now accepted the view developed by F. Schwally (Gesch. des Qor., i, 33 f.) and others that kur'an is derived from the Syriac keryānā, "scripture reading, lesson", as used in Christian liturgy [a rite or body of rites prescribed for public worship] (see for example the 6th century Syriac mss., Brit. Museum, Add. 14, 432, e.g. keryänä d-yom ba'awata, "lection for the Day of Supplications", fol. 43b). See also J. Wellhausen, ZDMG, Ixvii (1913), 634; J. Horovitz, Isl., xiii (1923), 67; Foreign vocab., 233 f.; Bell-Watt, 136 f. (for works abbreviated in this article, see Bibl.). The majority view among Muslim authorities has been that kur'an is simply the verbal noun from Qara'a, "he read" or "he recited". Both views find some support in the Qur'ân, where the verb Qara'a does occur, but not as frequently as the usual term for reading or reciting, tala. In early Kûfic manuscripts we find Quran without the hamza, causing some authorities such as Qatada and Abû 'Ubayda to derive it from Qarana, "he put together" or "he bound together" (see Gesch. des Qor., i, 31 f.). Against this view it should be noted that the omission of the hamza was a characteristic of Meccan speech and early Küfic Qur'anic script, and that the term Qur'an is closely related to the verb Qara'a in Qur'anic usage. The soundest conclusion seems to be that the term Qur'an originated in the Qur'an itself to represent the Syriac keryana, but was based on an Arabic maşdar form (fu'län) from qara'a

The verb qara'a occurs in the Qur'an 17 times, usually meaning "recite", but occasionally "read (aloud?)". Where it clearly means "recite", it is always the Qur'ân that is recited, usually by Muhammad (XVI, 98, XVII, 45, 106, etc.). But in one of the earliest contexts it is God who recited the revelation to Muhammad: "When we recite it, follow its recitation" (LXXV, 18), and in one of the latest contexts (LXXIII, 20) it is the believers (see below). qara'a means "read" in four or five verses, always with "book" (kitab). In XVII, 93, Muhammad is challenged by some unbelievers to ascend to heaven and bring down a book they can read for themselves. Three passages (XVII, 14, 71, and LXIX, 19) refer to the record books to be read at the Last Judgment, and one (X, 94) refers to some of Muhammad's con- temporaries-probably Jews and Christians-as "those who have been reciting [or reading] the Book" before him. Rudi Paret (Übersetzung, ad locc.) is no I doubt correct in seeing in the Qur'an different nuances in the meaning of qara'a, which he translates as lesen, verlesen, rezitieren, and vortragen. But there may not be as much variation in the Qur'anic usage of this verb as these terms suggest, since where it means "recite" it could be interpreted "recite (the) Qur'an) from written notes", and where it means "read" it could be interpreted "read aloud"
Most occurrences of the term Qur'an in the Muslim scripture date from a period of about ten years beginning when Mubammad began to perform the salát publicly and ending around the time of the battle of Badr in 624. It is impossible to date the contexts precisely or determine their exact chrono- logical order, but the general development of the Qur'anic usage of Qur'an is fairly clear. (Unless otherwise indicated, all statements on dating in this article are the present writer's own conclusions. In most cases these analyses tend to support the con- clusions reached by Richard Bell, who also dated individual pericopes rather than entire suras-see section 5 below

(1) Among the earliest meanings of Qur'an is "act of reciting", seen in two passages where God addresses Muhammad: "Ours is it to put it together and [Ours is] its Qur'an. When We recite it follow its Qur'an" (LXXV, 17 f.), and "Observe the salat at the sinking of the sun until the darkening of the night, and [observe] the Qur'an at the dawn; surely the Qur'an at the dawn is well attested" (XVII, 78). This last verse provides useful insight into the relationship between the salat and the Qur'an at the time when both were just being instituted. (2) In some verses Qur'an means "an individual passage recited [by Muhammad]". In LXXII, 1 f. the Prophet is in- formed that "a number of the jinn listened, and said: "Verily, we have heard a Qur'an, a wonder, which guides to rectitude, so we have believed in it'." See also X, 61, XIII, 31, and cf. X, 15. (3) In a large majority of contexts, dating mostly from the late Meccan and very early Medinan years, Qur'an, usually with the definite article, has a complex meaning involving several elements. It is the "revelation" (tanzil) sent down by God upon Muhammad (XX, 2 ff., LXXVI, 23, etc.). It is sent down at intervals (XVII, 106, XXV, 32), and in some contexts it appears to be something in God's possession that is larger than what has so far been "sent down": "What We send down of al-Qur'an is a healing and mercy to the believers" (XVII, 82). In other contexts al-Qur'an refers to a collection of revelations in Muhammad's possession, which he is commanded to recite (XXVII, 91 f.; cf. XVI, 98, XVII, 45). Its liturgical setting is seen in a number of passages, such as VII, 204: "So when al-Qur'an is recited [by Muhammad), listen to it and keep silent" and LXXXIV, 20 f.: "Then what ails them, that they believe not, and when al- Qur'an is recited to them they do not bow?" Specific references to other Muslims reciting parts of al-Qur'an occur only in one or two Medinan passages, such as LXXIII, 20, where the believers are told to recite during the night vigil only as much of al-Qur'an as is convenient or easy (ma tayassar) for them. (4) In a number of contexts that appear to be early Medinan, dating from before LXXIII, 20, the Qur'an (sometimes without the definite article) is said to be an Arabic version of "the Book" (al-kitab): "By the clear Book. Behold We have made it an Arabic Qur'an" (XLIII, 2 f.; see also XII, 1 f., XLI, 2 f., and other verses quoted below). The closest the Kur'ân comes to using the term al-Qur'an with its present meaning as the name of the Muslim scripture is where it is mentioned with the Torah and the Gospel in IX, 111, in a construction that suggests three parallel scriptures. But it must be remembered that the revelation was not yet complete, and the final scrip- ture was not compiled until after Muhammad's death

b. Synonyms in the Qur'an. The meaning of the term Qur'an and the origin of the Muslim scripture cannot be understood fully without taking into consideration the Qur'anic usage of several other closely related terms, especially aya, kitab, and sura, but also dhikr, matkāni, hikma, and others. Each of these terms has its own distinct, basic meaning in the Qur'an, but in some contexts their usages con- verge with that of Qur'an
The basic meaning of aya, like the related Hebrew oth and the Syriac atha, is "sign", in the sense of a token of some unseen reality or truth. Its derivation is uncertain. It would most naturally come from 3-w-k, corresponding with the Hebrew 'awah, but such a root does not exist in Arabic, and the Arabic form would be difficult to explain as a borrowing from Hebrew or Syriac (see Foreign vocab., 72 f.). Aya and its plural ayat occur in the Qur'an almost 400 times, most frequently in reference to natural phenomena that confirm God's power and bounty and call for gratitude from man. These are the so-called "sign- passages", discussed below in 7.b. In other contexts aya refers to some extraordinary event or miracle that confirms the truth of the message of a prophet. Then in late Meccan or possibly very early Medinan passages, probably in response to the continuing demands for a miracle from Muhammad, aya takes on a new meaning "revealed message". And finally in a number of Medinan passages aya comes to be used for the basic unit of revelation. Later Muslim scholars interpreted aya in these passages to mean "verse", but the Qur'an gives no indication as to the length of these units of revelation, except that in some contexts they are said to be parts of the Qur'an, the kitab, and possibly of a sura
Kitab, literally "book, writing", occurring 255 times in the singular and six times in the plural (kutub), is among the most difficult terms in the Qur'an to interpret. Only rarely does it refer to some everyday type of writing, e.g. a letter sent by Solomon to the Queen of Sheba (XXVII, 28 f.), and a document of manumission (XXIV, 33). Sometimes it refers to a record of men's deeds (XVII, 71, XVIII, 49, XXXIX, 69, etc.), events that have been pre- scribed (XVII, 58, XXXV, 11, etc.), or God's know- ledge (VI, 59, X, 61, XI, 6, etc.). The commentators tend to interpret these passages as referring to actual celestial books, a view also adopted by most Western writers on the topic. A. Jeffery (The Qur'an as scripture, in MW, XL [1950], 47-50) saw references to the ancient Near Eastern Record Book, Book of Decrees, and Inventory Book, while G. Widengren (Muhammad, the apostle of God, and his ascension, 1955, 115-22) argued that these passages referred to a single "Heavenly Book". There is no conclusive evidence in the Qur'an for either view, and there are serious problems with any literal interpretation of these verses, all of which could just as well be taken as metaphorical references to God's knowledge and decrees. A similar interpretation is possible for those verses usually regarded as referring to the heavenly original of the Qur'an, e.g., "Indeed it is a noble Qur'an in a treasured kitab touched only by the purified" (LVI, 77-9), "Nay, it is a glorious Qur'an in a preserved tablet" (LXXXV, 21 f.), and "By the clear kitab. Behold We have made it an Arabic Qur'an... it is in the umm al-kitab with Us" (XLIII, 1-4; cf. III, 7, and XIII, 39, which are even more ambiguous). There is in fact no clear indication in these verses or anywhere in the Qur'an of a heavenly original or archetype of the Muslim scrip- ture. This concept has been read into the text by the

later commentators. By far the most frequent usage of kitab in the Qur'an is in reference to God's revela- tion to Muhammad and to certain religious com- munities that existed before and during his time, especially the Jews and Christians, who are called "the people of the Book" (ahl al-kitab). This complex series of ideas involving the Qur'an, the Book, Muhammad, and the People of the Book is discussed in more detail in section 2 below.
The term súra, occurring in the Qur'an nine times in the singular and once in the plural (suwar), seems to be derived from the Syriac surta, sürtha, "scripture, scripture reading" (Gesch. des Qor., i, 31; Foreign ro- cab., 180-2). In the Qur'an sura refers to a unit of reve- lation and could be translated "scripture" or "revela- tion". Several verses mention a sura being "sent down" (IX, 64, 86, 124, 127, XLVII, 20, etc.), in con- texts that are similar to some Qur'anic usages of aya, Qur'an, and kitab. And Muhammad's opponents, who are dissatisfied with what he has been reciting, are challenged to "produce a súra like it" (II, 23, X, 38) or "ten suwar like it" (XI, 13). Cf. XXVIII, 49, where the challenge is to produce a kitab from God. The Qur'an gives no indication as to how long these units of revelation were. They were most likely only parts of the present suras
The Qur'anic usages of Qur'an, aya, kitab, and sura converge at the following points: (1) Qur'an, aya, and sura are each used sometimes for the basic unit of revelation, a pericope consisting most likely of several verses (e.g. X, 61, II, 106, and X, 38, respectively), and kitab may have the same meaning in XXVIII, 49, and a few other places. (2) Qur'an (e.g. XXXIV, 31) and kitab (e.g. II, 89, VI, 92, 155, VII, 2) sometimes mean "a scripture", and sura may have this meaning in XXIV, 1. (3) Occasionally Qur'an and kitab are used for the revelation of God as a whole, only part of which has been sent down, e.g. XVII, 82, quoted above, and XXXV, 31: "And what We have revealed to you [Muhammad] of the kitab is the truth, confirming what was before it". (4) Usually, however, there is a distinction. Kitab, when referring to the revelation, usually means the "Book of God", the revelation as a whole, while Qur'an usually means that part of the revelation that has been sent down to Muhammad, e.g. X, 37: "This Qur'an is... a distinct setting forth of the kitab in which there is no doubt" and XII, 1 f.: "These are the ayat of the clear kitab. Verily We have sent it down as an Arabic Qur'an"
Other technical terms used in the Qur'an for the revelation being sent down to Muhammad include the following. (1) Three nouns from the verb dhakara, "to remember, to mention", are used for the reve- lation in the sense of a reminder or warning: tadkkira in LXXIII, 19, LXXVI, 29, etc.; dhikra in VI, 90, XI, 120, etc.; and dhikr in the formula, "It is nothing but a dhikr to the worlds", at the end of the suras XXXVIII, LXVIII, LXXXI, etc., in the introduc- tory formula to XXXVIII where it is connected with al-Qur'an, and in VII, 63, 69, etc. (2) The term mathani has puzzled Muslim commentators and given rise to several theories among Western interpreters of the Qur'an. Even if it is a derivative of the Hebrew mishnah (Koran. Untersuchungen, 26-8) or the Syriac or Aramaic mathnitha (Gesch. des Qor., i, 114-16), the term mathani must have been influenced by the Arabic thana, "to double, repeat"; cf. mathna, "by twos", in IV, 3, XXXIV, 46, and XXXV, 1. Thus it is probably best translated as "repetitions" (Bell, Trans., 247; Blachère, Trad., 290). But it refers to the revelation sent down to Muhammad: "We have given thee seven of the mathani and the wondrous Qur'an" (XV, 87), and "God has sent down the best of accounts, in agreement with itself, mathani at which the skins of those who fear their Lord do creep" (XXXIX, 23). The commen- tators usually take the "seven mathani" to be the seven verses of the Fatiha [q.v.]. A more likely inter- pretation is that this term refers to the punishment- stories (see 6.d and 7.d below), which Bell suggested may have once formed a collection separate from the Qur'an (Bell-Watt, 134f., 1431.). For the literature, see Foreign vocab., 257 f., and Paret, Kommentar, 279f. (3) Hikma, "wisdom", probably from the Aramaic hekkma, is used in several Medinan passages for the revelation or part of it. God sends down the kitab and the hikma to Muhammad (II, 231, IV, 113, etc.). Mu- hammad recites the ayat, and teaches the kitab and the hikma (LXII, 2). And the ayat and the hikma are recited in the Muslims' homes (XXXIII, 34). These verses should probably be interpreted in the light of IV, 105, where it is said that Muhammad is to judge (tahkum) mankind on the basis of the Book sent down to him. For the literature, see Foreign vocab., III, and Paret, Kommentar, 68. The term Qur'an as the name of the Muslim scripture acquired con- notations of these terms and others used for the revelation "sent down" to Muhammad; see also Bell-Watt, 145-7, and Paret, Kommentar, 19, on furqan.

2. MUHAMMAD AND THE Qur'an

The Muslim scripture and Muhammad's prophetic experience are so closely linked that one cannot be fully understood without the other. The orthodox view of the dramatic form of the Qur'an is that God is the speaker throughout, Muhammad is the recipient, and Gabriel is the intermediary agent of revelation-regardless of who may appear to be the speaker and addressee. An analysis of the text shows that the situation is considerably more complex than this. In what appear to be the oldest parts of the Qur'an, the speaker and the source of the revelation are not indicated. In some passages (XCI, 1-10, CI, CII, CIII, etc.) there is not even any indication that the message is from a deity (on this, cf. Muir, Moham med, 39 ff.), and in some (LXXXI, 15-21, LXXXIV, 16-19, XCII, 14-21, etc.) Muhammad seems to be the speaker. In the earliest passages that mention Muhammad's God, he is not named but is spoken of in the third person, usually as "my Lord", "your Lord", etc. (LI, 1-23, LII, 1-16, LXXIV, 1-10, LXXX, 1-32, LXXXIV, 1-19, LXXXVIII, 1-22, XCVI, 1-8, etc.). From LIII, 10, LXXXI, 23, and other verses it is clear that Muhammad had visions of God, and at least in the Meccan years it was the voice of God himself, and not some intermediary, that Muhammad heard. In the earliest passages to indicate the source of the revelation, God is the speaker and the direct source, e.g., "We shall cast upon thee [Muhammad] a mighty word" (LXXIII, 5) and "We shall cause thee to recite without forgetting" (LXXXVII, 6). And a number of late Meccan and early Medinan passages speak of God reciting the ayat, the Qur'an, and the kitab to Muhammad (II, 252, 111, 108, XLV, 6, etc.)

But during the same period a series of passages have the effect of elevating God from direct revelation. This is done in two ways: the message is said to be brought down by certain intermediaries, and it is connected in some way with "the Book" (al- kitab). Both of these concepts occur in XLII, 51 ff., where it is explicitly denied that God speaks directly to Muhammad: "It is not fitting that God should